Art styles and movements
Art Styles and Art Movements
Renaissance
For most of us, art as we know it began during the Renaissance period.
This is the period when artists discoverd how to paint in a manner that made a flat surface look three dimensional, with depth, shadows and a sense of reality.
For people living in the Renaissance period, art was suddenly as realistic as photographs are to us today.
Renaissance literally means 'rebirth'.
This rebirth occured in Italy during the 14th and 15th centuries when Italy was quite a wealthy society.
Cities such as Florence and Siena were flourishing banking and commercial centers with global trade, and art was being funded by the Medici family of Florence, the Sforza family of Milan, and with Rome at the center of the Catholic Church, support came from Popes Julius II and Leo X.
Initially, Renaissance artists were determined to move away from religion and turn their attention to the individual man and woman in society. It was a time when individual expression and worldly experience became two of the main themes of Renaissance art.
Leonardo da Vinci was the archetypal Renaissance man. He painted, he was a scientest, an inventor, a sculptor and unfortunately for us, he was also a dreamer.
Many of his best works were so experimental that they have barely survived - but he was an artistic genius without a doubt.
Michelangelo (Buonarroti) and Raphael on the other hand, worked at their craft in a job like manner, producing works regarded for centuries as embodying the classical notion of perfection.
Michelangelo's 'David' or his 'Pietà' (at the top of the page) are a high point in Renaissance sculpture, and his ultimate appointment as chief architect on the final phases of St Peters Basilica in Rome when in his 70's, must stand as testimony to both his architectural and artistic genius.
If you ever have the opportunity to see 'David' - housed in Florence - you should bear in mind that this statue has spent centuries in the rain, was sculptured by a 24 year old, and centuries on, it still puts most modern art to shame.
That's the level that Renaissance artists were at, and why this period in art and self discovery is so important.
Other Renaissance architects included Alberti, Brunelleschi - of Duomo fame - and Bramante whose works are dotted throughout Florence.
Florence remained an important centre for the Renaissance into the 16th century eventually to be overtaken by Rome and Venice.
Some of the ideas of the Italian Renaissance did spread to other parts of Europe, most notably the 'Northern Renaissance' epitomised by the works of artist Jan Van Eyck.
By the 1520's, Renaissance ideas had developed into a movement known as Mannerism - an artform characterised by complex composition, with muscular and elongated figures in complex poses.
Much of Michelangelos and Titians work also belongs to this period.
Baroque
Baroque Art emerged in Europe around 1600, as a reaction against the Mannerist style that dominated the Late Renaissance.
Baroque Art is less complex and more realistic than Mannerism as the above example by Caravaggio shows.
This movement was encouraged by the Catholic Church as a return to tradition and spirituality.
One of the great periods of art history, Baroque Art was developed by Caravaggio, Annibale Carracci, and Gianlorenzo Bernini, among others. This was also the age of Rubens, Rembrandt, Velázquez and Vermeer.
In the 18th century, Baroque Art was replaced by the more elegant and elaborate Rococo style.
Rococo
Throughout the 18th century in France, a new wealthy and influential middle-class Paris society was evolving and upon the death of Louis XIV, that Paris society became the purveyors of style.
Shells and stones became the principal motif in Rococo and were used extensively in interior decoration.
This new society woman competed for the most elaborate decorations for her house, hence the Rococo style became dominated by feminine taste and influence.
Francois Boucher was an 18th century painter whose works are regarded as the perfect expression of the Rococo period.
Trained by his father who was a lace designer, Boucher won fame with his sensuous and light-hearted paintings and landscapes. He executed important works for both the Queen of France and as importantly, Madame de Pompadour, Louis XV's mistress.
Characterized by elegant, refined yet playful subject matters, Boucher's style became the epitome of the court of Louis XV. His works typically utilized decorative designs to illustrate stories with shepherds, goddesses and cupids playing against a pink and blue sky.
These works mirrored the frolicsome and ornamented decadence of the French aristocracy of the time.
Rococo is sometimes considered to be the final phase of the Baroque period.
Romanticism
Romanticism is an early 19th century European movement.
It is a deeply-felt art style which is individualistic, beautiful, exotic, and emotionally wrought.
In the late 18th century, it came to mean anti-Classical and represented a trend towards the picturesque and a love of nostalgia.
The Romantic movement took on different characteristics throughout Europe.
In England, the poets Shelley and Keats sought beauty, Byron sought glory and adventure, Wordsworth tried to express a love of nature in a new simple language.
Landscape painting was explored by Constable, Palmer and others. The Middle Ages were revived as a source of artistic and architectural interest rather than something to fight against.
John William Maynard Turner found a radical and expressive technique with which to depict his view of the natural world.
Sunrise Between Two Headlands
(right) painted in 1826 is a fascinating approach to a landscape.
Other great artists associated with Romanticism include, Caspar David Friedrich, Francisco Goya, Sir Thomas Lawrence, Sir Edwin Landseer and William Blake.
In the United States , the Romantic movement was the Hudson River School of dramatic landscape painting.
Obvious successors of Romanticism include the Pre-Raphaelite movement and the Symbolists. But Impressionism, and through it almost all of 20th century art, is also firmly rooted in the Romantic tradition.
Pre-Raphaelites
Formed in the autumn of 1848, the Pre-Raphaelites were a group of nineteenth-century British painters, poets, and critics who reacted against the contemporary Victorian trend towards materialism, and against the neo-classical conventions of academic art.
The group, initially comprising Rossetti, his brother William, James Collinson, the sculptor Thomas Woolner as well as Hunt and Millais, specialised in detailed studies of medieval scenes strong on elaborate symbolism and noble themes.
The name was decided upon as the group aimed to rediscover the painting styles of artists working earlier than the time of Raphael.
This close knit circle did eventually expand to include Ford Maddox Brown and James Abbot McNeil Whistler.
This high point of the Pre-Raphaelites was reached when John Millais' Ophelia (see above) was exhibited to great acclaim at the Academy Exhibition.
Soon after the group dissolved.
Rossetti, together with William Morris and Edward Burne-Jones formed an alternative Brotherhood based in Oxford, specialising in the depiction of pale, ethereal beauties, while Millais and Hunt went their separate ways but continued working according to the original ideas of the movement.
Pre-Raphaelitism was highly successful during the Victorian era and continued into the early 20th century with artists such as Maxwell Armfield and Frank Cadogan Cowper before becoming out-moded in the 1920s.
Abstract
Abstract painting is a 20th century art form that tries to describe thoughts, emotions or concepts of time through visual representation. The style can take almost any form, lines, shapes, colours - even the addition of objects such as sand, paper, or anything that comes to the artists imagination.
The above example from the work of Jackson Pollock is a sublime example of how brilliant this artform can be when handled by a great artist.
Art Nouveau and Art Deco
Art Noveau is an international style of decoration and architecture which developed in the 1880s and 1890s. The name derives from the Maison de l'Art Nouveau, an interior design gallery opened in Paris in 1896, but in fact the movement originally had different names throughout Europe.
Art Nouveau flourished in Britain with the assistence of the progressively thinking Arts and Crafts movement, where it was simply known as 'Modern Style'.
Art Noveau can be seen most effectively in the decorative arts, for example interior design, glasswork and jewellery. However, it was also seen in posters and illustration as well as certain paintings and sculptures of the period.
If one establishment in France distinguishes the style of Art Noveau it is probably the Moulin Rouge - a notorious night club in Paris frequented by Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec.
The Moulin Rouge provided him with a distraction to his disabilities - he broke both his legs as a child and both remained deformed. He stood 4 and a half feet tall.
But each night he would sketch the goings on at the club and the next day would paint them. Needless to say, whenever the club wanted a new poster, they turned to him to create them.
Art Deco overlaps with Art Noveau but takes its name from the 1925 Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs Industriels et Modernes, held in Paris, which celebrated living in the modern world.
It was popularly considered to be an elegant style of cool sophistication in architecture and applied arts which range from luxurious objects made from exotic material to mass produced, streamlined items available to a growing middle class.
One artist whose work crossed both boudaries was that of Reneé Lalique, whose early commission included producing objects d'art for the sameMaison de l'Art Nouveau that gave art noveau its name.
Lalique was originally a jeweller whose work held International respect. However, at the age of 50 he threw in what he was doing to make glass - some of which now sells for hundreds of thousands of dollars a piece.
BAUHAUS KEY DATES: 1919-1930s
A school of art, design and architecture founded in Germany in 1919. Bauhaus style is characterized by its severely economic, geometric design and by its respect for materials.
The Bauhaus school was created when Walter Gropius was appointed head of two art schools in Weimar and united them in one. He coined the term Bauhaus as an inversion of 'Hausbau' - house construction.
Teaching at the school concentrated on functional craftsmanship and students were encouraged to design with mass-produced goods in mind. Enormously controversial and unpopular with right wingers in Weimar , the school moved in 1925 to Dessau .
The Bauhaus moved again to Berlin in 1932 and was closed by the Nazis in 1933. The school had some illustrious names among it's teachers, including Paul Klee, Lyonel Feininger, Wassily Kandinsky, Laszlo Moholy-Nagy and Marcel Breuer. Its influence in design of architecture, furniture, typography and weaving has lasted to this day - the look of the modern environment is almost unthinkable without it.
Germany , 1919
Bauhaus was founded in Weimar in 1919 as a state-sponsored school of art, architecture, and design. Architect Walter Gropius served as its director until 1928. The school's curriculum was organized on the principle that the crafts were united with the arts on an equal footing (as they had been in medieval times), on the guild system of workshop training under the tutelage of "masters," and on the ideas concerning the relationship of art to society developed by the German industrial-design association Deutscher Werkbund, which was greatly influenced by the Arts and Crafts movements in England, Austria, and the Netherlands. The Bauhaus's utopian aims included raising the quality of everyday life through the production of buildings, design objects, and art works according to an aesthetic of modernity and universality. Lyonel Feininger, Vasily Kandinsky , Paul Klee , and Oskar Schlemmer were among the first "masters" or teachers at the school. The addition of such artists as László Moholy-Nagy and Josef Albers to the faculty in 1923 and after reinforced a shift away from Expressionism [ more ] and toward the functional and technology-based aesthetics of Constructivism [ more ] and De Stijl [ more ]. The school was forced to relocate to Dessau in 1925. In April 1933, when conditions imposed by the Nazis made continued operation impossible, the faculty decided to close the Bauhaus, and several of its professors, including Albers, Gropius, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, emigrated to the U.S., where they assumed important teaching posts. In 1937 the New Bauhaus opened in Chicago under the direction of Moholy-Nagy.
REPRESENTATIVE ARTISTS:
Walter Gropius
Johannes Itten
Georg Muche
Laszlo Moholy-Nagy
Cubism
Cubism is an art style spearheaded simultaneously by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque.
When they compared paintings in 1908, they realised that they had developed a new art style that was later dubbed by Guillaume Apollinaire to be ’cubism’. The two paintings above show how close the artwork of the two had become even though there was no intentional attempt to collaborate.
Cubism broke from centuries of tradition by rejecting the idea that art should depict a single viewpoint. Instead they used an analytical system in which three-dimensional subjects were fragmented and redefined from several different points of view simultaneously.
The hallmarks of cubism are the ’breaking down’ of form and space into geometrical shapes.
In contrast to traditional painting styles where the perspective of a subject is fixed in one time and space, cubist work can portray the subject from multiple perspectives and multiple lapses of time.
Cubism is sometimes regarded as having two phases - the Analytic phase (1907-12), and the Synthetic phase (1913 through the 1920s).
The initial phase attempted to show objects as the mind, not the eye, perceives them.
The Synthetic phase featured works that were composed of fewer and simpler forms, in brighter colours. Other major exponents of Cubism included Robert Delaunay, Francis Picabia, Jean Metzinger, Marcel Duchamp and Fernand Leger, Piet Mondrian and Sir Jacob Epstein.
Dada
Dada or Dadaism is an art style founded in Zurich in 1916 at the Cabaret Voltaire.
Here, expatriate artists, poets, and writers, among them Jean Arps, gathered.
Dada started as an indictment against the values that were responsible for the horrors of the first world war.
Dadaism assumed many forms, including outrageous performances, festivals, readings, nonsensical chance-generated poetry and political satire. All of these activities were intended to challenge the established canons of art, thoughts and morality of the time.
Among the leading Dadaists were Marcel Duchamp (whose Mona Lisa adorned with moustache and goatee is a Dada classic), George Grosz, Otto Dix, Hans Richter and Jean Arp. The movement had a strong influence on Pop Art, which was sometimes called neo-Dada.
The term Dada, nonsense or baby-talk term, symbolizes the loss of meaning in European culture.
Expressionism
Expressionism is an art movement of the early 20th century in which traditional adherence to realism was replaced by the artist's emotional connection to the subject.
Unlike Impressionism, the goals of expressionism were not to reproduce the impression suggested by the surrounding world, but to strongly impose the artist's own sensibility to the world's representation.
These paintings, like that of Vasily Kandinsky above, are often abstract, with the subject matter distorted in colour and form to emphasize the intense emotion of the artist.
The search for harmony and form is not as important as trying to achieve the highest expressive intensity.
Expressionism assessed itself mostly in Germany in 1910. As an international movement, expressionism has also been thought of as inheriting from certain medieval artforms and, more directly, Cezanne, Gauguin, Van Gogh and the fauvism movement.
The most well known German expressionists are Max Beckmann, Otto Dix, Lionel Feininger, George Grosz, Ernst August Macke, and the Norwegian Edvard Munch is also related to this movement.
During his stay in Germany, the Russian Vasily Kandinsky was also an expressionism addict.
Fauvism
Fauvism was the first of the major avant-garde movements in European 20th century art and was characterised by paintings that used intensely vivid, non-naturalistic and exuberant colours.
The style was essentially expressionist, and generally featured landscapes in which forms were distorted. The Fauves first exhibited together in 1905 in Paris.
They found their name when a critic pointed to a renaissance-like sculpture in the middle of the same gallery as the exhibition and exclaimed derisively 'Donatello au milieu des fauves!' ('Donatello among the wild beasts!').
The term Fauvists, or wild beasts appealed enormously to the artists and the name caught on.
The movement was subjected to more mockery as it developed, but began to gain respect when major art buyers, such as Gertrude Stein, took an interest.
The leading artists involved were Henri Matisse, Rouault, Derain, Vlaminck, Braque and Dufy.
Although short-lived (1905-8), Fauvism was extremely influential in the evolution of 20th century art.
Impressionism
The term impressionism was first used in 1874 when a journalist ridiculed a painting by Claude Monet called: Impression – Sunrise (above).
That very famous painting now hangs in the Musée Marmottan Paris.
Monet exhibited his work independently of the official Salon in Paris along with artists such as Renoir, Cezanne and Pissarro.
'Impressionism' subsequently became widely used to describe the type of painting practised by this group of artists, who exhibited together eight times up until 1886.
Impressionist art is a style in which the artist captures the image of an object as someone would see it if they just caught a glimpse of it. Sometimes the work appears to be slightly out of focus.
This is why most impressionist art is best viewed from a distance, to allow the characteristic broken, dotted or flickering brush work - so effective in capturing the quality of light - to merge into a cohesive image.
When Monet finally exhibited 8 paintings of the Notre Dame – each in different lighting conditions ranging from fog, rain, sunrise, sunset, snow etc – the art world was left breathless at the stunning accuracy of each rendition.
Far from being the work of an incompetent artist, when all different paintings of the same subject were seen side by side – they realised he was a genius who captured light like it had never been seen before – and collectors stormed to own an Impressionistic painting.
Manet prefered to paint everyday objects. Pissaro and Sisley painted the French countryside and river scenes. Degas enjoyed painting ballet dancers and horse races. Morisot painted women doing everyday things. Renoir loved to show the effect of sunlight on flowers and figures.
Monet, as mentioned, was interested in subtle changes in the atmosphere.
While the term Impressionist covers much of the art of this time, there were smaller movements within it, such as Pointillism, Art Nouveau and Fauvism.
Pointilism was developed from Impressionism and involved the use of many small dots of colour to give a painting a greater sense of vibrancy when seen from a distance. The equal size dots never quite merge in the viewer's perception resulting in a shimmering effect like one experiences on a hot and sunny day. One of the leading exponents was Seurat to whom the term was first applied in regard to his painting 'La Grand Jatte' (1886).
Seurat was part of the Neo-Impressionist movement which included Camille Pissarro, Paul Gauguin, Henri Matisse, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Paul Signac. The word Divisionism describes the theory they followed while the actual process was known as pointillism.The effects of this technique, if used well, were often far more striking than the conventional approach of mixing colours together.
The Neo-Impressionist movement was brief yet influential. The term Divisionism was also the name of an Italian version of Neo-Impressionism in the 1890s and early 1900s, and one can trace a line to Futurism which was founded in 1909.
Pop Art
Some art dictionaries mistakingly suggest that Pop art developed in New York in the 1950’s. In fact it was started in London in the 50’s by Richard Hamlton and was adopted in the 60’s by the likes of David Hockney and Peter Blake.
Then it moved to New York where in the hands of artists like Andy Warhol, Claes Oldenburg and Roy Lichenstein, the concept of Pop Art really took off.
Pop Art is a direct descendant of Dadaism in the way it mocks the established art world by appropriating images from the street, the mass media, and presents popular culture as art in itself.
It was Andy Warhol, however, who really brought Pop Art to the public eye.
His screen prints of Campbell 's soup tins and film stars such as Marilyn Monroe, are part of the iconography of the 20th century. His suggestion that everyone should have '15 minutes of fame' has entered the English language as a concept. That's art at its best, right up there with The Beatles in terms of reaching the masses with your thoughts.
Another great exponent of this art form is Roy Lichenstein (featured above). He literally took the imagery of comic book magazines and reproduced them as art forms - dots and all.
Other leading artists in Pop were Jasper Johns and Robert Rauschenberg.
POST IMPRESSIONISM KEY DATES: 1880-1920
Post-Impressionism in Western painting, movement in France that represented both an extension of Impressionism and a rejection of that style's inherent limitations. The term Post-Impressionism was coined by the English art critic Roger Fry for the work of such late 19th-century painters as Paul C?zanne, Georges Seurat, Paul Gauguin, Vincent van Gogh, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, and others. All of these painters except van Gogh were French, and most of them began as Impressionists; each of them abandoned the style, however, to form his own highly personal art. Impressionism was based, in its strictest sense, on the objective recording of nature in terms of the fugitive effects of colour and light. The Post-Impressionists rejected this limited aim in favour of more ambitious expression, admitting their debt, however, to the pure, brilliant colours of Impressionism, its freedom from traditional subject matter, and its technique of defining form with short brushstrokes of broken colour. The work of these painters formed a basis for several contemporary trends and for early 20th-century modernism.
The Post-Impressionists often exhibited together, but, unlike the Impressionists, who began as a close-knit, convivial group, they painted mainly alone. C?zanne painted in isolation at Aix-en-Provence in southern France ; his solitude was matched by that of Paul Gauguin, who in 1891 took up residence in Tahiti , and of van Gogh, who painted in the countryside at Arles . Both Gauguin and van Gogh rejected the indifferent objectivity of Impressionism in favour of a more personal, spiritual expression. After exhibiting with the Impressionists in 1886, Gauguin renounced "the abominable error of naturalism." With the young painter ?mile Bernard, Gauguin sought a simpler truth and purer aesthetic in art; turning away from the sophisticated, urban art world of Paris , he instead looked for inspiration in rural communities with more traditional values. Copying the pure, flat colour, heavy outline, and decorative quality of medieval stained glass and manuscript illumination, the two artists explored the expressive potential of pure colour and line, Gauguin especially using exotic and sensuous colour harmonies to create poetic images of the Tahitians among whom he would eventually live. Arriving in Paris in 1886, the Dutch painter van Gogh quickly adapted Impressionist techniques and colour to express his acutely felt emotions. He transformed the contrasting short brushstrokes of Impressionism into curving, vibrant lines of colour, exaggerated even beyond Impressionist brilliance, that convey his emotionally charged and ecstatic responses to the natural landscape.
In general, Post-Impressionism led away from a naturalistic approach and toward the two major movements of early 20th-century art that superseded it: Cubism and Fauvism, which sought to evoke emotion through colour and line.
REPRESENTATIVE ARTISTS:
Georges Seurat
Paul Signac
Realism
As the name implies, this is a style of painting that depicts the subject matter as it appears in reality, without distortion or stylization
Realism, also known as the Realist school, was a mid-nineteenth century art movement and style in which artists discarded the formulas of Neoclassicism and the theatrical drama of Romanticism to paint familiar scenes and events as they actually looked. Typically it involved some sort of sociopolitical or moral message, in the depiction of ugly or commonplace subjects. Daumier, Millet and Courbet were realists.
REPRESENTATIVE ARTISTS:
Gustave Courbet
Jean-Francois Millet
Honore Daumier
Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot
J A MacNeil Whistler
Surrealism
Founded in Paris in 1924 by Andre Breton with his Manifesto of Surrealism, the movement's principal aim was 'to resolve the previously contradictory conditions of dream and reality into an absolute reality, a super-reality'.
Surrealism is characterized by using the subconscious as a source of creativity to liberate pictorial subjects and ideas.
Surrealist paintings often depict unexpected or irrational objects in an atmosphere of fantasy, creating a dreamlike scenario. Salvador Dali was a master at this.
Other major artists of the movement were Picasso, Marcel Duchamp, Max Ernst, Rene Magritte and Joan Miro. Surrealism's impact on popular culture can still be felt today, most visibly in advertising.
Symbolism
Symbolism is an art style developed in the late 19th century and is characterized by the incorporation of symbols and ideas, usually spiritual or mystical in nature, which represent the inner life of people.
Traditional pictorial depictions are replaced or contrasted by surfaces decoratively embellished with figures and design elements.
This painting by Edvard Munch - called Scream, typifies this art form.
Trompe l'oeil (Trick of the Eye)
A style of painting in which architectural details are rendered in extremely fine detail in order to create the illusion of tactile and spatial qualities. This form of painting was first used by the Romans thousands of years ago in frescoes and murals.
It can be seen in many towns and cities across Italy today where paintings on the side of buildings for instance, trick the eye into thinking that you are looking at doors, windows or alleyways, when in fact what you're looking at is a flat wall.
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